The attitude toward the use of Jamaican Creole reflects certain privileges and certain beliefs. For some persons Jamaican Creole will never be accepted as a language. Many persons see patois as an inferior language that is often considered to be debased, unbecoming or crude. Social attitude and misconceptions about Jamaican Creole had their genesis in the fact that the Creole is linked with slavery.
Some of the attitudes that persons have of Jamaican Creole and Creole-Speakers are listed below:
1. Creole is back yard talk
2. Creole gets you nowhere
3. Creole is for uneducated persons
4. Users of Creole are seen as persons who talk bad ( chat bad)
5. Creole speakers have no class
6. Creole belongs to a lower class
7. Use of Creole shows a lack of ambition and makes you unemployable as no one will employ you when you speak Creole.
Sunday, April 18, 2010
THE LANGUAGE SITUATION IN JAMAICA
There is a close relationship among all Caribbean countries as reflected in their cultural practices, geographical locations and languages. Among all these countries, there is the common African ancestry and historical experience of the Middle Passage and slavery that our ancestors endured. After the British slave trade ended in 1807, the practice of selling slaves Intra-Caribbean became popular. This meant that cultural transference and acculturation occurred. The interaction that took place among persons in these territories is one factor that has accounted for similarities in the language shared by so many Caribbean countries.
Another historical factor affecting the development and preservation of Creole languages in the Caribbean is the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804). During these years of intense warfare, a number of refugees made their way to various Caribbean territories including British colonial islands such as Jamaica.
Languages in Caribbean countries were influenced by the unique and different surroundings of each island. Many words and phrases share similar roots but have different adaptations.
THE LANGUAGE CONTINUUM IN JAMAICA
This is a term that depicts or shows the range of language and language dialect spoken in Jamaica. Jamaicans tend to switch from one language to another in conversation and in different situations. Creole is continuously changing and becoming more like English. This is called decreolistion. The language continuum refers to a range from the acrolet to the mesolect to the baselect.
Acrolect
The acrolect is the Jamaican Standard English (J.S.E) and it’s at the last point of the continuum. It is most often spoken in formal situations. It’s a language used by the intellectual group.
Mesolect
This is a form of Creole with more English derived features than the basilect and is said to be the point on the continuum next to the basilect. It is most often spoken by urban and educated persons.
Baselect
This is a form of Creole with more African derived features than other forms and is said to be the first point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in rural areas and by uneducated persons.
Another historical factor affecting the development and preservation of Creole languages in the Caribbean is the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804). During these years of intense warfare, a number of refugees made their way to various Caribbean territories including British colonial islands such as Jamaica.
Languages in Caribbean countries were influenced by the unique and different surroundings of each island. Many words and phrases share similar roots but have different adaptations.
THE LANGUAGE CONTINUUM IN JAMAICA
This is a term that depicts or shows the range of language and language dialect spoken in Jamaica. Jamaicans tend to switch from one language to another in conversation and in different situations. Creole is continuously changing and becoming more like English. This is called decreolistion. The language continuum refers to a range from the acrolet to the mesolect to the baselect.
Acrolect
The acrolect is the Jamaican Standard English (J.S.E) and it’s at the last point of the continuum. It is most often spoken in formal situations. It’s a language used by the intellectual group.
Mesolect
This is a form of Creole with more English derived features than the basilect and is said to be the point on the continuum next to the basilect. It is most often spoken by urban and educated persons.
Baselect
This is a form of Creole with more African derived features than other forms and is said to be the first point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in rural areas and by uneducated persons.
LANGUAGE PROFILE OF CARIBBEAN TERRITORIES
Language Profile of Caribbean Territories
Dutch: Suriname, Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao,Saba, St.Eustatius,
St. Maarten
English: Antigua, Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana, Belize , Montserrat, St. Vincent, St. Kitts, Trinidad, Grenada, St. Lucia, Dominica
Spanish: Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico
French: Haiti, Martinique, Guadeloupe, French Guiana
Dutch: Suriname, Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao,Saba, St.Eustatius,
St. Maarten
English: Antigua, Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana, Belize , Montserrat, St. Vincent, St. Kitts, Trinidad, Grenada, St. Lucia, Dominica
Spanish: Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico
French: Haiti, Martinique, Guadeloupe, French Guiana
CLARIFICATION OFCONCEPTS
1. Creole is used to refer to former pidgins. It is a dialect or language which is the result of contact between the language of a colonizing people and the languages of a colonized people. It is the result of language contact between the French, Spanish, English and Dutch.
2. Patois refers to a geographical dialect which differs from the standard language of a country.
3. Dialectal Variation is the differences in the use of language within a speech community.
4. Code switching is the ability to switch between language varieties or to move from one language to another.
5. Language register refers to the manner of speaking or writing specific to a certain function that is appropriate to a particular purpose or situation. This has to do with the levels of formality or informality as well as the tone and appropriateness of these choices.
6. Language continuum is a spectrum of a variation linking the more standard end of the range with the conservative creole extreme.
7. Dialect refers to a regional or socially definitive variety of a language identified by a particular set of words and grammatical structure.
8. Idiolect refers to language use that is peculiar to an individual speaker.
9. Sociolect refers to a geographically defined variety of a language.
10. Diglossia is a language situation in which two codes exist, sharing one level of structure (vocabulary), but differing at other levels (pronunciation and grammar).
11. Variation refers to the changes in language in response to various influences such as geographical, educational, social, and individual and group factors.
12. Vernacular is the mother tongue. It is the native language of a speech community which is often used in contrast with the institutionalized standard language. It is the language that is spoken in the home by the mother and is passed on to the child.
13. Bilingualism is a situation in which two languages exist and both are spoken by the people. For example in St. Lucia English and French Creole are spoken as well as in the Netherlands Antilles Dutch and Papiamentu are spoken by the people.
14. Multilingualism is a situation in which several languages coexist in a speech community. For example in Belize and Trinidad.
15. Monolingualism is a situation in which there is only one language existing in a country.
16. A language community refers to all the speakers of a particular language. They do not have to reside within the same geographic location.
2. Patois refers to a geographical dialect which differs from the standard language of a country.
3. Dialectal Variation is the differences in the use of language within a speech community.
4. Code switching is the ability to switch between language varieties or to move from one language to another.
5. Language register refers to the manner of speaking or writing specific to a certain function that is appropriate to a particular purpose or situation. This has to do with the levels of formality or informality as well as the tone and appropriateness of these choices.
6. Language continuum is a spectrum of a variation linking the more standard end of the range with the conservative creole extreme.
7. Dialect refers to a regional or socially definitive variety of a language identified by a particular set of words and grammatical structure.
8. Idiolect refers to language use that is peculiar to an individual speaker.
9. Sociolect refers to a geographically defined variety of a language.
10. Diglossia is a language situation in which two codes exist, sharing one level of structure (vocabulary), but differing at other levels (pronunciation and grammar).
11. Variation refers to the changes in language in response to various influences such as geographical, educational, social, and individual and group factors.
12. Vernacular is the mother tongue. It is the native language of a speech community which is often used in contrast with the institutionalized standard language. It is the language that is spoken in the home by the mother and is passed on to the child.
13. Bilingualism is a situation in which two languages exist and both are spoken by the people. For example in St. Lucia English and French Creole are spoken as well as in the Netherlands Antilles Dutch and Papiamentu are spoken by the people.
14. Multilingualism is a situation in which several languages coexist in a speech community. For example in Belize and Trinidad.
15. Monolingualism is a situation in which there is only one language existing in a country.
16. A language community refers to all the speakers of a particular language. They do not have to reside within the same geographic location.
TYPES OF FALLACY
Fallacies – flaw in argument caused by irrelevant or inadequate evidence, erroneous reasoning or improper expression. Fallacies may take the form of material, psychological or logical
Types of Fallacy
Material fallacies includes hasty and casual generalizations, post hoc, faulty analogy and either or syndrome.
1. hasty generalization
2. Faulty analogy
3. post hoc fallacy( after this, therefore because of this)
4. either or syndrome
1. Hasty Generalization-the speaker or writer draws a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient, inadequate support or unrepresentative evidence. In this type of fallacy the writer misstates, exaggerates or minimizes the facts by representing inferences as facts, stereotyping or generalizing from a small sample.
2. Faulty Analogy- this is an invalid comparison in which two things that are not alike in significant respects or have critical points of differences are compared and assumed to be similar even though they are basically different.
3. Post Hoc fallacy (after this, therefore because of this) mistakes temporal succession for causal sequence. In other word the assumption is made that one event is the cause of another despite the fact that no proof is given.
4. Either or Syndrome occurs when the writer assumes that there are only two side or alternatives to an issue.
Psychological Fallacies- ad hominem appeals, ad populum appeals, appeal to authority, bandwagon appeal, strawman appeal and red herring appeal.
1. ad populum
2. ad hominem ( to the person)
3. appeal to authority
4. band wagon
5. straw man appeal
6. red herring appeal
1. Ad Populum fallacy is where the speaker or writer sidelines the issue by stirring up the prejudices and biases of his audience through the use of loaded and emotive words.
2. Ad Hominem ( to the person) fallacy is an irrelevant attack that is launched on the person or source originating an argument and an appeal is made to personal considerations rather than to logic or reason instead of responding to substantial issues that are raised.
3. Appeal to Authority involves an improper appeal to authority as well as the citing of expert knowledge to support an argument without sufficient acknowledgement.
4. Bandwagon Appeal occurs when an individual attempts to validate his claim by suggesting or giving the impression that everyone believes it and that the idea is acceptable and sound because everyone accepts it as being so.
5. Straw man Appeal is where an individual attacks a weakened form of an opponent’s argument or an argument that his opponent did not advance.
6. Red Herring Appeal drags in a side issue to detract the audience from the main issue.
Logical fallacies focus on non sequitur, begging the question circular reasoning and vagueness.
1. Non sequitur
2. begging the question
3. circular reasoning
4. vagueness
1. Non sequitur suggests that the argument does not follow. Here the claim that is made is irrelevant to or is unsupported by the evidence that is put forward.
2. Begging the Question-This fallacy assumes as a premise or as evidence for an argument the very claim or point that is in the question. In other words the issues are sidestepped and the question is begged.
3. Circular Reasoning is an argument in which the evidence and the conclusion are restated.
4. Vagueness occurs when the writer or speaker uses terms that have not been defined in such a way as to give the impression that they have universal acceptable meanings.
Types of Fallacy
Material fallacies includes hasty and casual generalizations, post hoc, faulty analogy and either or syndrome.
1. hasty generalization
2. Faulty analogy
3. post hoc fallacy( after this, therefore because of this)
4. either or syndrome
1. Hasty Generalization-the speaker or writer draws a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient, inadequate support or unrepresentative evidence. In this type of fallacy the writer misstates, exaggerates or minimizes the facts by representing inferences as facts, stereotyping or generalizing from a small sample.
2. Faulty Analogy- this is an invalid comparison in which two things that are not alike in significant respects or have critical points of differences are compared and assumed to be similar even though they are basically different.
3. Post Hoc fallacy (after this, therefore because of this) mistakes temporal succession for causal sequence. In other word the assumption is made that one event is the cause of another despite the fact that no proof is given.
4. Either or Syndrome occurs when the writer assumes that there are only two side or alternatives to an issue.
Psychological Fallacies- ad hominem appeals, ad populum appeals, appeal to authority, bandwagon appeal, strawman appeal and red herring appeal.
1. ad populum
2. ad hominem ( to the person)
3. appeal to authority
4. band wagon
5. straw man appeal
6. red herring appeal
1. Ad Populum fallacy is where the speaker or writer sidelines the issue by stirring up the prejudices and biases of his audience through the use of loaded and emotive words.
2. Ad Hominem ( to the person) fallacy is an irrelevant attack that is launched on the person or source originating an argument and an appeal is made to personal considerations rather than to logic or reason instead of responding to substantial issues that are raised.
3. Appeal to Authority involves an improper appeal to authority as well as the citing of expert knowledge to support an argument without sufficient acknowledgement.
4. Bandwagon Appeal occurs when an individual attempts to validate his claim by suggesting or giving the impression that everyone believes it and that the idea is acceptable and sound because everyone accepts it as being so.
5. Straw man Appeal is where an individual attacks a weakened form of an opponent’s argument or an argument that his opponent did not advance.
6. Red Herring Appeal drags in a side issue to detract the audience from the main issue.
Logical fallacies focus on non sequitur, begging the question circular reasoning and vagueness.
1. Non sequitur
2. begging the question
3. circular reasoning
4. vagueness
1. Non sequitur suggests that the argument does not follow. Here the claim that is made is irrelevant to or is unsupported by the evidence that is put forward.
2. Begging the Question-This fallacy assumes as a premise or as evidence for an argument the very claim or point that is in the question. In other words the issues are sidestepped and the question is begged.
3. Circular Reasoning is an argument in which the evidence and the conclusion are restated.
4. Vagueness occurs when the writer or speaker uses terms that have not been defined in such a way as to give the impression that they have universal acceptable meanings.
PROCESS OF DATA COLLECTION
Questionnaire
These may be mailed, used over the phone, via face to face interaction, e-mailed or placed on website
Advantages
1. It is quick and efficient means of collecting data
2. guarantees anonymity
3. used to survey a large population
4. facilitates the quick reporting and analysis of the data.
5. aids easy sorting summarizing and reporting of data
6. allows for easy administering and can be easily and reliably scored
Disadvantages
1. limits the scope for asking probing questions
2. it is inflexible
3. make assessment of the motivation of the respondent difficult
4. responses are not always objective and may be misleading
5. the items to be forced –choice
6. it is usually limited in the kinds of information that it can elicit
7. they have short spaces for responses
Interviews
Advantages
It allows:
1. the individual to contribute their own views on an issue
2. greater flexibility on the part of the researcher and respondent
3. the interviewer to gather more in depth information and return of data
4. the researcher/ respondent to explain, clarify, and correct any misinterpretation that might arise
Disadvantages
1. It is open to bias and subjectivity
2. it may collect unnecessary and irrelevant details
3. it does not allow for anonymity
4. the questions asked may cause the respondent discomfort
Observation
Advantages
1. It allows for collection of primary data in a natural setting
2. It can give high return of data
3. allows the researcher flexibility
4. it reduces bias and possible interference
Disadvantages
1. It may be affected by researcher bias
2. the reactions of the respondents may be misinterpreted
3. important and relevant information may be missed
4. actions and behaviours never remain static
RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. Historical research -systematic col
lection and objective evaluations of data related to past occurrences to determine causes, effects, trends. This design involves four important steps-defining the problem which would include formulating the hypothesis, locate the relevant sources of information, summarizing and evaluating it and presenting and interpreting its findings.
2. Descriptive research- describes existing conditions without analyzing relationships among variables. Three designs fall here:
(a.) correlation- examines the extent to which differences in one variable are related to the differences in one or more other variable;
(b.) observation- here the researcher observes how people act or how things look.
(c.) survey research.-seeks to establish patterns of cause and effect relationships
3. Between variables. Two types of survey – social and public. Social surveys seek to establish cause and effects of a social phenomenon, while public opinion surveys seek to find out what people think about a particular issue.
4. Experimental- test hypothesis by an experiment using an experimental and a control group
5. Case Study- there is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or institution in order to determine variables and relationships among variables over a period of time. Here extensive data is collected. It includes observation, interviews, and documents.
6. Action Research- focuses on finding a solution to a local problem in a local setting. The problem is identified and all participants set out to investigate the reasons for the problem and to arrive at a solution to the problem.
These may be mailed, used over the phone, via face to face interaction, e-mailed or placed on website
Advantages
1. It is quick and efficient means of collecting data
2. guarantees anonymity
3. used to survey a large population
4. facilitates the quick reporting and analysis of the data.
5. aids easy sorting summarizing and reporting of data
6. allows for easy administering and can be easily and reliably scored
Disadvantages
1. limits the scope for asking probing questions
2. it is inflexible
3. make assessment of the motivation of the respondent difficult
4. responses are not always objective and may be misleading
5. the items to be forced –choice
6. it is usually limited in the kinds of information that it can elicit
7. they have short spaces for responses
Interviews
Advantages
It allows:
1. the individual to contribute their own views on an issue
2. greater flexibility on the part of the researcher and respondent
3. the interviewer to gather more in depth information and return of data
4. the researcher/ respondent to explain, clarify, and correct any misinterpretation that might arise
Disadvantages
1. It is open to bias and subjectivity
2. it may collect unnecessary and irrelevant details
3. it does not allow for anonymity
4. the questions asked may cause the respondent discomfort
Observation
Advantages
1. It allows for collection of primary data in a natural setting
2. It can give high return of data
3. allows the researcher flexibility
4. it reduces bias and possible interference
Disadvantages
1. It may be affected by researcher bias
2. the reactions of the respondents may be misinterpreted
3. important and relevant information may be missed
4. actions and behaviours never remain static
RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. Historical research -systematic col
lection and objective evaluations of data related to past occurrences to determine causes, effects, trends. This design involves four important steps-defining the problem which would include formulating the hypothesis, locate the relevant sources of information, summarizing and evaluating it and presenting and interpreting its findings.
2. Descriptive research- describes existing conditions without analyzing relationships among variables. Three designs fall here:
(a.) correlation- examines the extent to which differences in one variable are related to the differences in one or more other variable;
(b.) observation- here the researcher observes how people act or how things look.
(c.) survey research.-seeks to establish patterns of cause and effect relationships
3. Between variables. Two types of survey – social and public. Social surveys seek to establish cause and effects of a social phenomenon, while public opinion surveys seek to find out what people think about a particular issue.
4. Experimental- test hypothesis by an experiment using an experimental and a control group
5. Case Study- there is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or institution in order to determine variables and relationships among variables over a period of time. Here extensive data is collected. It includes observation, interviews, and documents.
6. Action Research- focuses on finding a solution to a local problem in a local setting. The problem is identified and all participants set out to investigate the reasons for the problem and to arrive at a solution to the problem.
ANALYZING DISCOURSE TYPES
Analyzing Discourse Types
1. If the writing is descriptive then the text will be organized spatially and will have the following elements:
a. an appeal to the senses
b. descriptive words and phrases
c. a dominant impression through the use of an appeal to the senses.
d. a specific point of view which may either be a physical setting, a dominant mood or tone.
2. Narratives are organized along a chronological order and have a time sequence. Narration has the following features:
a. the use of dialogue
b. action and dynamic words
c. plot
d. conflict
e. point of view whether first, second or third person narration.
3. Exposition – the organizational structure would include:
a. comparison/contrast
b. illustration
c. analogy
d. cause and effect
e. coherent and logical writing
f. a main idea or thesis statement
g. sub-ideas or supporting details
4. Argument / Persuasion – here the writer or speaker will seek to offer proofs for claims which he has made. These are the features of argument/persuasion:
a. fact/opinion
b. refutation and counter argument
c. appeal to authority
d. statistical data
e. emotional appeals
f. rhetorical questions
g. personal experiences
1. If the writing is descriptive then the text will be organized spatially and will have the following elements:
a. an appeal to the senses
b. descriptive words and phrases
c. a dominant impression through the use of an appeal to the senses.
d. a specific point of view which may either be a physical setting, a dominant mood or tone.
2. Narratives are organized along a chronological order and have a time sequence. Narration has the following features:
a. the use of dialogue
b. action and dynamic words
c. plot
d. conflict
e. point of view whether first, second or third person narration.
3. Exposition – the organizational structure would include:
a. comparison/contrast
b. illustration
c. analogy
d. cause and effect
e. coherent and logical writing
f. a main idea or thesis statement
g. sub-ideas or supporting details
4. Argument / Persuasion – here the writer or speaker will seek to offer proofs for claims which he has made. These are the features of argument/persuasion:
a. fact/opinion
b. refutation and counter argument
c. appeal to authority
d. statistical data
e. emotional appeals
f. rhetorical questions
g. personal experiences
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