Read the following extract then identify the language strategies used by the writer.
Look at them behind their counters-young, neatly outfitted in their starched fast food uniforms or their linen and polyester clerk suits. They quickly and effortlessly tap the keys on their cash registers and computers, answer phones and look quite efficient, don’t they? They seem as if they can think, don’t they? Don’t let the pressed clothes and technology fool you; many of them can’t. Let there be a glitch or a breakdown and then you’ll see what lies beneath the suits and uniforms and beyond the counters- operators of broken-down cash registers and computers who will fumble to spell and calculate. And you, older than them, will wonder what they spent their primary and secondary years learning.
You can spot them every day, everywhere. Last week, for example, I saw the brain of a young attendant at a fast food outlet shut down the instant his computer crashed. Before the crash, he had appeared capable as he punched the appropriate keys for the orders. But when he was faced with having to write down what his customers wanted, he could only operate in slow motion. I know because, to my misfortune, I was about to order a tuna sandwich and a large orange juice when the system failed. After a minute or two of trying to spell the two items, he scrunched up the piece of paper and started writing afresh on a second sheet. I was not sure I’d get the correct meal.
Two days after this calamity, I encountered one of Mr. Illiteracy’s pals a Miss Innumeracy, in a store downtown when I was trying to pay a bill of $26.05 with two twenty- dollar bills. Because of the mix-up the cash register were closed, and so the young girl had to calculate on paper how much change to give me. After an eternity of scratching her head and calculating on a sheet of paper, she handed me $14.05, but, thanks, to my standard five teacher, I had already calculated in my head that I should receive $13.95. When I told her so, she seemed mentally paralysed. Luckily another suited girl, who looked senior in age and rank, came to her rescue. She whipped out a calculator, pressed a few keys, and presto, gave me the right change, scolding Miss Innumeracy for her bad mathematics.
I left, thinking sadly that there nothing I could do to help them make up for the years they had spent in their classrooms not bothering to learn how to read, write or think.
Adapted from Suzanne Mills,: Between the Lines”,
Trinidad and Tobago Newsday, June 2, 2004,p11
CAPE 2006
These are some of the strategies you should have identified.
5. Descriptive words: Adjectives/ adverbs which create visual images for the reader.
6. Rhetorical questions/Repetition: used to influence audience’s response and get them thinking because the writer is suggesting that the people who seem efficient are really the exact opposite.
7. Anecdote: storytelling, sharing personal experience. This gives the audience a real-life picture of how inefficient these people are.
8. Sarcasm: Use of Mr. Illiteracy/ Miss Innumeracy-used to highlight the clerks inefficiency
9. Exclamation marks & commas are used to alert the audience to the inefficiency of the clerks
10. Hyperbole: ‘for an eternity’; mentally paralysed- these phrases are used to emphasize the persona’s impatience and exasperation.
11. Diction: words chosen to evoke a response from the audience, for example “calamity, whipped, crunched up”.
12. Tone: humorous, sarcastic, conversational, conspiratorial, tongue-in cheek ( with ironic or flippant intent)
13. Engaging the reader on her side through evidence from the extract, for example in paragraph 2.
14. Contrast: between the older, more efficient attendant and the younger brainless one, suggesting the ignorance of the younger generation.
15. Narrative voice: first person and very subjective.
Now that we have come to the end I hope you had fun while you were studying and you are now more prepared for your examination.
Sunday, April 18, 2010
CONTEXT OF COMMUNICATION
a. Intrapersonal communication takes place within you and involves your thoughts and feelings. eg. thinking, solving problems, imagining
b. Interpersonal communication is between two persons on a one to one basis .eg. interviews, conversations, intimate communication
c. Small group occurs when a small number of people meet to solve a problem. Here each person has equal opportunity to interact with the members of the group. eg. leadership meetings, role-taking, goal setting
d. Organizational communication involves a formal setting and context within multi-group settings. eg. business, government, educational purposes
e. Mass communication involves highly structured messages and large audiences eg. Print, electric or electronic such as the newspapers, magazines, radio, television, video, computer
f. Public communication involves one dominant person talking to a large audience with the message being highly structured. eg. speeches, debates
g. Intercultural communication involves the sender and the receiver originating from different cultural background.- eg. communicating, across social sub-groups, in tourism
h. Academic communication takes place in structured learning institution or classroom setting. eg. essay, research paper
b. Interpersonal communication is between two persons on a one to one basis .eg. interviews, conversations, intimate communication
c. Small group occurs when a small number of people meet to solve a problem. Here each person has equal opportunity to interact with the members of the group. eg. leadership meetings, role-taking, goal setting
d. Organizational communication involves a formal setting and context within multi-group settings. eg. business, government, educational purposes
e. Mass communication involves highly structured messages and large audiences eg. Print, electric or electronic such as the newspapers, magazines, radio, television, video, computer
f. Public communication involves one dominant person talking to a large audience with the message being highly structured. eg. speeches, debates
g. Intercultural communication involves the sender and the receiver originating from different cultural background.- eg. communicating, across social sub-groups, in tourism
h. Academic communication takes place in structured learning institution or classroom setting. eg. essay, research paper
ELEMENTS IN THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
1. SENDER - Conceptualizes & encodes messages
2. MEDIUM- Example: letter, e-mail, speech
3. CHANNEL- This is the mode via which the audience will receive the message: EXAMPLE: post office, internet, radio
4. RECEIVER- decodes messages; creates feedback
5. FEEDBACK- interaction between the speaker and the audience. In other words it is a reaction to the message. This may be verbal taking the form of questions.
2. MEDIUM- Example: letter, e-mail, speech
3. CHANNEL- This is the mode via which the audience will receive the message: EXAMPLE: post office, internet, radio
4. RECEIVER- decodes messages; creates feedback
5. FEEDBACK- interaction between the speaker and the audience. In other words it is a reaction to the message. This may be verbal taking the form of questions.
THE COMMUNICATION MODEL
1. The context- environment in which the communication takes place. It includes the time, surrounding, events, physical, culture and psychological climates.
2. The sender-receiver- the sender codifies the context of the message and selects its medium and channel. Both the sender and the receiver conceptualize, encode, and select the medium, channel, decode, interpret and provide feedback.
3. The message- this is the idea, content and feelings the individual wishes to share. Can be either verbal in that it is spoken or written or non-verbal and includes gestures body language smells symbols etc.
4. The medium- relates to that which is used to transmit the message .eg. radio, television, newspaper, magazines etc. NB. This must be appropriate for the context and the receiver
5. The channel- the means through which the message will be transmitted eg. Sound waves, light waves or other sense stimulating means. NB. Must be appropriate for the receiver and the context.
6. Feedback- this is the response of the receiver and the sender to each other.
7. Noise- this a barrier that affects the communication process
2. The sender-receiver- the sender codifies the context of the message and selects its medium and channel. Both the sender and the receiver conceptualize, encode, and select the medium, channel, decode, interpret and provide feedback.
3. The message- this is the idea, content and feelings the individual wishes to share. Can be either verbal in that it is spoken or written or non-verbal and includes gestures body language smells symbols etc.
4. The medium- relates to that which is used to transmit the message .eg. radio, television, newspaper, magazines etc. NB. This must be appropriate for the context and the receiver
5. The channel- the means through which the message will be transmitted eg. Sound waves, light waves or other sense stimulating means. NB. Must be appropriate for the receiver and the context.
6. Feedback- this is the response of the receiver and the sender to each other.
7. Noise- this a barrier that affects the communication process
FEATURES OF LANGUAGE ORGANIZATION
1. strong opening
2. developed body
3. conclusion
4. illustrations to develop points
5. logical linkages
6. focused
7. definition of terms
2. developed body
3. conclusion
4. illustrations to develop points
5. logical linkages
6. focused
7. definition of terms
LANGUAGE STRATEGIES
These are some of the strategies that you will employ when called upon to identify the different language strategies in various types pieces of writings.
1. Type of Language: Language may be spoken or written; informal or formal; personal or impersonal, standard or creole.
2. The Tone: sad, humorous, remorseful, satirical, objective, sarcastic, nostalgic, regretful or jubilant etc.
3. Sentence Construction: simple, compound, direct, complex, verbose etc.
4. Diction: Choice of vocabulary used- slang or formal, clichés, prosaic or florid, simple or stilted, use of coined words, repetition of key words and phrases etc.
5. Use of connotative or denotative words- eg emotive words used to arouse feelings, to suggest, to emphasize factual content, to state a point or words which seem to convey facts but are geared mainly at arousing emotions.
6. Significant use of punctuation marks and ellipsis
7. Lay-out of page: use of headlines, broad sheet layout, advertising-copy-layout, or verse layout.
8. Typographical features:- use of different font size, bold face print, capital letters, spacing, indentation, etc.
9. Use of literary devices- metaphor, personification, simile, irony, rhetorical questions, hyperbole, alliteration, sarcasm, onomatopoeia, etc.
10. Use of rhyme
11. Use of pictures and graphics
1. Type of Language: Language may be spoken or written; informal or formal; personal or impersonal, standard or creole.
2. The Tone: sad, humorous, remorseful, satirical, objective, sarcastic, nostalgic, regretful or jubilant etc.
3. Sentence Construction: simple, compound, direct, complex, verbose etc.
4. Diction: Choice of vocabulary used- slang or formal, clichés, prosaic or florid, simple or stilted, use of coined words, repetition of key words and phrases etc.
5. Use of connotative or denotative words- eg emotive words used to arouse feelings, to suggest, to emphasize factual content, to state a point or words which seem to convey facts but are geared mainly at arousing emotions.
6. Significant use of punctuation marks and ellipsis
7. Lay-out of page: use of headlines, broad sheet layout, advertising-copy-layout, or verse layout.
8. Typographical features:- use of different font size, bold face print, capital letters, spacing, indentation, etc.
9. Use of literary devices- metaphor, personification, simile, irony, rhetorical questions, hyperbole, alliteration, sarcasm, onomatopoeia, etc.
10. Use of rhyme
11. Use of pictures and graphics
WHY IS CREOLE SPOKEN SO POPULARLY?
1.It is the major vehicle of social and national solidarity, identity and the general population
2.It is the preferred language of popular entertainment eg.disc jockeys and poets. It is the language of choice for most cultural entertainment eg. Folk songs, Anancy Stories and Big Bwoy Stories. It is used for poetry, comedy, and roots play. It is used when giving examples in speech in order to put a point across effectively. Lastly it is used by street folks, in that being street smart requires the use of Creole, not Standard English.
3.Jamaican Creole is marketable, and is far more lucrative than Standard English. Eg. slangs and slogans used on personal items such as cars, cups, and clothes. It is used in advertisement, when soliciting sale for goods, when giving humour, jokes, description of person and their dress and appearance as well as on souvenir items.
4.Creole is used as the vernacular of socialization and creates a sense of familiarity in conversations and approaches to others.
5.In some learning situation it is the preferred language to be used.
For example:
a.When students at the primary or pre-primary levels find it easier to understand concepts taught using Jamaican Creole.
b.It gives students the sense that Jamaican Creole is an authentic language and a symbol of their culture.
c.Both students and teachers will recognize structural differences between English and Creole and are better able to correct them.
d.It helps the teacher to better understand students’ errors and to therefore make plans for delivering instructions more effectively.
e.It builds students’ self-confidence, self-esteem and knowledge.
f.Creole speaking children sometimes perform poorly in school because they do not readily join in discussions because they are often told that they (talk bad).
As a language the Jamaican Creole is used in public, private and informal situations. It is the language of the street, a vehicle for expression of our heritage and cultural identity; and despite what some persons might want others to think, the language is used in all strata of our society.
2.It is the preferred language of popular entertainment eg.disc jockeys and poets. It is the language of choice for most cultural entertainment eg. Folk songs, Anancy Stories and Big Bwoy Stories. It is used for poetry, comedy, and roots play. It is used when giving examples in speech in order to put a point across effectively. Lastly it is used by street folks, in that being street smart requires the use of Creole, not Standard English.
3.Jamaican Creole is marketable, and is far more lucrative than Standard English. Eg. slangs and slogans used on personal items such as cars, cups, and clothes. It is used in advertisement, when soliciting sale for goods, when giving humour, jokes, description of person and their dress and appearance as well as on souvenir items.
4.Creole is used as the vernacular of socialization and creates a sense of familiarity in conversations and approaches to others.
5.In some learning situation it is the preferred language to be used.
For example:
a.When students at the primary or pre-primary levels find it easier to understand concepts taught using Jamaican Creole.
b.It gives students the sense that Jamaican Creole is an authentic language and a symbol of their culture.
c.Both students and teachers will recognize structural differences between English and Creole and are better able to correct them.
d.It helps the teacher to better understand students’ errors and to therefore make plans for delivering instructions more effectively.
e.It builds students’ self-confidence, self-esteem and knowledge.
f.Creole speaking children sometimes perform poorly in school because they do not readily join in discussions because they are often told that they (talk bad).
As a language the Jamaican Creole is used in public, private and informal situations. It is the language of the street, a vehicle for expression of our heritage and cultural identity; and despite what some persons might want others to think, the language is used in all strata of our society.
ATTITUDES TOWARDS JAMAICAN CREOLE
The attitude toward the use of Jamaican Creole reflects certain privileges and certain beliefs. For some persons Jamaican Creole will never be accepted as a language. Many persons see patois as an inferior language that is often considered to be debased, unbecoming or crude. Social attitude and misconceptions about Jamaican Creole had their genesis in the fact that the Creole is linked with slavery.
Some of the attitudes that persons have of Jamaican Creole and Creole-Speakers are listed below:
1. Creole is back yard talk
2. Creole gets you nowhere
3. Creole is for uneducated persons
4. Users of Creole are seen as persons who talk bad ( chat bad)
5. Creole speakers have no class
6. Creole belongs to a lower class
7. Use of Creole shows a lack of ambition and makes you unemployable as no one will employ you when you speak Creole.
Some of the attitudes that persons have of Jamaican Creole and Creole-Speakers are listed below:
1. Creole is back yard talk
2. Creole gets you nowhere
3. Creole is for uneducated persons
4. Users of Creole are seen as persons who talk bad ( chat bad)
5. Creole speakers have no class
6. Creole belongs to a lower class
7. Use of Creole shows a lack of ambition and makes you unemployable as no one will employ you when you speak Creole.
THE LANGUAGE SITUATION IN JAMAICA
There is a close relationship among all Caribbean countries as reflected in their cultural practices, geographical locations and languages. Among all these countries, there is the common African ancestry and historical experience of the Middle Passage and slavery that our ancestors endured. After the British slave trade ended in 1807, the practice of selling slaves Intra-Caribbean became popular. This meant that cultural transference and acculturation occurred. The interaction that took place among persons in these territories is one factor that has accounted for similarities in the language shared by so many Caribbean countries.
Another historical factor affecting the development and preservation of Creole languages in the Caribbean is the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804). During these years of intense warfare, a number of refugees made their way to various Caribbean territories including British colonial islands such as Jamaica.
Languages in Caribbean countries were influenced by the unique and different surroundings of each island. Many words and phrases share similar roots but have different adaptations.
THE LANGUAGE CONTINUUM IN JAMAICA
This is a term that depicts or shows the range of language and language dialect spoken in Jamaica. Jamaicans tend to switch from one language to another in conversation and in different situations. Creole is continuously changing and becoming more like English. This is called decreolistion. The language continuum refers to a range from the acrolet to the mesolect to the baselect.
Acrolect
The acrolect is the Jamaican Standard English (J.S.E) and it’s at the last point of the continuum. It is most often spoken in formal situations. It’s a language used by the intellectual group.
Mesolect
This is a form of Creole with more English derived features than the basilect and is said to be the point on the continuum next to the basilect. It is most often spoken by urban and educated persons.
Baselect
This is a form of Creole with more African derived features than other forms and is said to be the first point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in rural areas and by uneducated persons.
Another historical factor affecting the development and preservation of Creole languages in the Caribbean is the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804). During these years of intense warfare, a number of refugees made their way to various Caribbean territories including British colonial islands such as Jamaica.
Languages in Caribbean countries were influenced by the unique and different surroundings of each island. Many words and phrases share similar roots but have different adaptations.
THE LANGUAGE CONTINUUM IN JAMAICA
This is a term that depicts or shows the range of language and language dialect spoken in Jamaica. Jamaicans tend to switch from one language to another in conversation and in different situations. Creole is continuously changing and becoming more like English. This is called decreolistion. The language continuum refers to a range from the acrolet to the mesolect to the baselect.
Acrolect
The acrolect is the Jamaican Standard English (J.S.E) and it’s at the last point of the continuum. It is most often spoken in formal situations. It’s a language used by the intellectual group.
Mesolect
This is a form of Creole with more English derived features than the basilect and is said to be the point on the continuum next to the basilect. It is most often spoken by urban and educated persons.
Baselect
This is a form of Creole with more African derived features than other forms and is said to be the first point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in rural areas and by uneducated persons.
LANGUAGE PROFILE OF CARIBBEAN TERRITORIES
Language Profile of Caribbean Territories
Dutch: Suriname, Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao,Saba, St.Eustatius,
St. Maarten
English: Antigua, Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana, Belize , Montserrat, St. Vincent, St. Kitts, Trinidad, Grenada, St. Lucia, Dominica
Spanish: Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico
French: Haiti, Martinique, Guadeloupe, French Guiana
Dutch: Suriname, Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao,Saba, St.Eustatius,
St. Maarten
English: Antigua, Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana, Belize , Montserrat, St. Vincent, St. Kitts, Trinidad, Grenada, St. Lucia, Dominica
Spanish: Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico
French: Haiti, Martinique, Guadeloupe, French Guiana
CLARIFICATION OFCONCEPTS
1. Creole is used to refer to former pidgins. It is a dialect or language which is the result of contact between the language of a colonizing people and the languages of a colonized people. It is the result of language contact between the French, Spanish, English and Dutch.
2. Patois refers to a geographical dialect which differs from the standard language of a country.
3. Dialectal Variation is the differences in the use of language within a speech community.
4. Code switching is the ability to switch between language varieties or to move from one language to another.
5. Language register refers to the manner of speaking or writing specific to a certain function that is appropriate to a particular purpose or situation. This has to do with the levels of formality or informality as well as the tone and appropriateness of these choices.
6. Language continuum is a spectrum of a variation linking the more standard end of the range with the conservative creole extreme.
7. Dialect refers to a regional or socially definitive variety of a language identified by a particular set of words and grammatical structure.
8. Idiolect refers to language use that is peculiar to an individual speaker.
9. Sociolect refers to a geographically defined variety of a language.
10. Diglossia is a language situation in which two codes exist, sharing one level of structure (vocabulary), but differing at other levels (pronunciation and grammar).
11. Variation refers to the changes in language in response to various influences such as geographical, educational, social, and individual and group factors.
12. Vernacular is the mother tongue. It is the native language of a speech community which is often used in contrast with the institutionalized standard language. It is the language that is spoken in the home by the mother and is passed on to the child.
13. Bilingualism is a situation in which two languages exist and both are spoken by the people. For example in St. Lucia English and French Creole are spoken as well as in the Netherlands Antilles Dutch and Papiamentu are spoken by the people.
14. Multilingualism is a situation in which several languages coexist in a speech community. For example in Belize and Trinidad.
15. Monolingualism is a situation in which there is only one language existing in a country.
16. A language community refers to all the speakers of a particular language. They do not have to reside within the same geographic location.
2. Patois refers to a geographical dialect which differs from the standard language of a country.
3. Dialectal Variation is the differences in the use of language within a speech community.
4. Code switching is the ability to switch between language varieties or to move from one language to another.
5. Language register refers to the manner of speaking or writing specific to a certain function that is appropriate to a particular purpose or situation. This has to do with the levels of formality or informality as well as the tone and appropriateness of these choices.
6. Language continuum is a spectrum of a variation linking the more standard end of the range with the conservative creole extreme.
7. Dialect refers to a regional or socially definitive variety of a language identified by a particular set of words and grammatical structure.
8. Idiolect refers to language use that is peculiar to an individual speaker.
9. Sociolect refers to a geographically defined variety of a language.
10. Diglossia is a language situation in which two codes exist, sharing one level of structure (vocabulary), but differing at other levels (pronunciation and grammar).
11. Variation refers to the changes in language in response to various influences such as geographical, educational, social, and individual and group factors.
12. Vernacular is the mother tongue. It is the native language of a speech community which is often used in contrast with the institutionalized standard language. It is the language that is spoken in the home by the mother and is passed on to the child.
13. Bilingualism is a situation in which two languages exist and both are spoken by the people. For example in St. Lucia English and French Creole are spoken as well as in the Netherlands Antilles Dutch and Papiamentu are spoken by the people.
14. Multilingualism is a situation in which several languages coexist in a speech community. For example in Belize and Trinidad.
15. Monolingualism is a situation in which there is only one language existing in a country.
16. A language community refers to all the speakers of a particular language. They do not have to reside within the same geographic location.
TYPES OF FALLACY
Fallacies – flaw in argument caused by irrelevant or inadequate evidence, erroneous reasoning or improper expression. Fallacies may take the form of material, psychological or logical
Types of Fallacy
Material fallacies includes hasty and casual generalizations, post hoc, faulty analogy and either or syndrome.
1. hasty generalization
2. Faulty analogy
3. post hoc fallacy( after this, therefore because of this)
4. either or syndrome
1. Hasty Generalization-the speaker or writer draws a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient, inadequate support or unrepresentative evidence. In this type of fallacy the writer misstates, exaggerates or minimizes the facts by representing inferences as facts, stereotyping or generalizing from a small sample.
2. Faulty Analogy- this is an invalid comparison in which two things that are not alike in significant respects or have critical points of differences are compared and assumed to be similar even though they are basically different.
3. Post Hoc fallacy (after this, therefore because of this) mistakes temporal succession for causal sequence. In other word the assumption is made that one event is the cause of another despite the fact that no proof is given.
4. Either or Syndrome occurs when the writer assumes that there are only two side or alternatives to an issue.
Psychological Fallacies- ad hominem appeals, ad populum appeals, appeal to authority, bandwagon appeal, strawman appeal and red herring appeal.
1. ad populum
2. ad hominem ( to the person)
3. appeal to authority
4. band wagon
5. straw man appeal
6. red herring appeal
1. Ad Populum fallacy is where the speaker or writer sidelines the issue by stirring up the prejudices and biases of his audience through the use of loaded and emotive words.
2. Ad Hominem ( to the person) fallacy is an irrelevant attack that is launched on the person or source originating an argument and an appeal is made to personal considerations rather than to logic or reason instead of responding to substantial issues that are raised.
3. Appeal to Authority involves an improper appeal to authority as well as the citing of expert knowledge to support an argument without sufficient acknowledgement.
4. Bandwagon Appeal occurs when an individual attempts to validate his claim by suggesting or giving the impression that everyone believes it and that the idea is acceptable and sound because everyone accepts it as being so.
5. Straw man Appeal is where an individual attacks a weakened form of an opponent’s argument or an argument that his opponent did not advance.
6. Red Herring Appeal drags in a side issue to detract the audience from the main issue.
Logical fallacies focus on non sequitur, begging the question circular reasoning and vagueness.
1. Non sequitur
2. begging the question
3. circular reasoning
4. vagueness
1. Non sequitur suggests that the argument does not follow. Here the claim that is made is irrelevant to or is unsupported by the evidence that is put forward.
2. Begging the Question-This fallacy assumes as a premise or as evidence for an argument the very claim or point that is in the question. In other words the issues are sidestepped and the question is begged.
3. Circular Reasoning is an argument in which the evidence and the conclusion are restated.
4. Vagueness occurs when the writer or speaker uses terms that have not been defined in such a way as to give the impression that they have universal acceptable meanings.
Types of Fallacy
Material fallacies includes hasty and casual generalizations, post hoc, faulty analogy and either or syndrome.
1. hasty generalization
2. Faulty analogy
3. post hoc fallacy( after this, therefore because of this)
4. either or syndrome
1. Hasty Generalization-the speaker or writer draws a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient, inadequate support or unrepresentative evidence. In this type of fallacy the writer misstates, exaggerates or minimizes the facts by representing inferences as facts, stereotyping or generalizing from a small sample.
2. Faulty Analogy- this is an invalid comparison in which two things that are not alike in significant respects or have critical points of differences are compared and assumed to be similar even though they are basically different.
3. Post Hoc fallacy (after this, therefore because of this) mistakes temporal succession for causal sequence. In other word the assumption is made that one event is the cause of another despite the fact that no proof is given.
4. Either or Syndrome occurs when the writer assumes that there are only two side or alternatives to an issue.
Psychological Fallacies- ad hominem appeals, ad populum appeals, appeal to authority, bandwagon appeal, strawman appeal and red herring appeal.
1. ad populum
2. ad hominem ( to the person)
3. appeal to authority
4. band wagon
5. straw man appeal
6. red herring appeal
1. Ad Populum fallacy is where the speaker or writer sidelines the issue by stirring up the prejudices and biases of his audience through the use of loaded and emotive words.
2. Ad Hominem ( to the person) fallacy is an irrelevant attack that is launched on the person or source originating an argument and an appeal is made to personal considerations rather than to logic or reason instead of responding to substantial issues that are raised.
3. Appeal to Authority involves an improper appeal to authority as well as the citing of expert knowledge to support an argument without sufficient acknowledgement.
4. Bandwagon Appeal occurs when an individual attempts to validate his claim by suggesting or giving the impression that everyone believes it and that the idea is acceptable and sound because everyone accepts it as being so.
5. Straw man Appeal is where an individual attacks a weakened form of an opponent’s argument or an argument that his opponent did not advance.
6. Red Herring Appeal drags in a side issue to detract the audience from the main issue.
Logical fallacies focus on non sequitur, begging the question circular reasoning and vagueness.
1. Non sequitur
2. begging the question
3. circular reasoning
4. vagueness
1. Non sequitur suggests that the argument does not follow. Here the claim that is made is irrelevant to or is unsupported by the evidence that is put forward.
2. Begging the Question-This fallacy assumes as a premise or as evidence for an argument the very claim or point that is in the question. In other words the issues are sidestepped and the question is begged.
3. Circular Reasoning is an argument in which the evidence and the conclusion are restated.
4. Vagueness occurs when the writer or speaker uses terms that have not been defined in such a way as to give the impression that they have universal acceptable meanings.
PROCESS OF DATA COLLECTION
Questionnaire
These may be mailed, used over the phone, via face to face interaction, e-mailed or placed on website
Advantages
1. It is quick and efficient means of collecting data
2. guarantees anonymity
3. used to survey a large population
4. facilitates the quick reporting and analysis of the data.
5. aids easy sorting summarizing and reporting of data
6. allows for easy administering and can be easily and reliably scored
Disadvantages
1. limits the scope for asking probing questions
2. it is inflexible
3. make assessment of the motivation of the respondent difficult
4. responses are not always objective and may be misleading
5. the items to be forced –choice
6. it is usually limited in the kinds of information that it can elicit
7. they have short spaces for responses
Interviews
Advantages
It allows:
1. the individual to contribute their own views on an issue
2. greater flexibility on the part of the researcher and respondent
3. the interviewer to gather more in depth information and return of data
4. the researcher/ respondent to explain, clarify, and correct any misinterpretation that might arise
Disadvantages
1. It is open to bias and subjectivity
2. it may collect unnecessary and irrelevant details
3. it does not allow for anonymity
4. the questions asked may cause the respondent discomfort
Observation
Advantages
1. It allows for collection of primary data in a natural setting
2. It can give high return of data
3. allows the researcher flexibility
4. it reduces bias and possible interference
Disadvantages
1. It may be affected by researcher bias
2. the reactions of the respondents may be misinterpreted
3. important and relevant information may be missed
4. actions and behaviours never remain static
RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. Historical research -systematic col
lection and objective evaluations of data related to past occurrences to determine causes, effects, trends. This design involves four important steps-defining the problem which would include formulating the hypothesis, locate the relevant sources of information, summarizing and evaluating it and presenting and interpreting its findings.
2. Descriptive research- describes existing conditions without analyzing relationships among variables. Three designs fall here:
(a.) correlation- examines the extent to which differences in one variable are related to the differences in one or more other variable;
(b.) observation- here the researcher observes how people act or how things look.
(c.) survey research.-seeks to establish patterns of cause and effect relationships
3. Between variables. Two types of survey – social and public. Social surveys seek to establish cause and effects of a social phenomenon, while public opinion surveys seek to find out what people think about a particular issue.
4. Experimental- test hypothesis by an experiment using an experimental and a control group
5. Case Study- there is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or institution in order to determine variables and relationships among variables over a period of time. Here extensive data is collected. It includes observation, interviews, and documents.
6. Action Research- focuses on finding a solution to a local problem in a local setting. The problem is identified and all participants set out to investigate the reasons for the problem and to arrive at a solution to the problem.
These may be mailed, used over the phone, via face to face interaction, e-mailed or placed on website
Advantages
1. It is quick and efficient means of collecting data
2. guarantees anonymity
3. used to survey a large population
4. facilitates the quick reporting and analysis of the data.
5. aids easy sorting summarizing and reporting of data
6. allows for easy administering and can be easily and reliably scored
Disadvantages
1. limits the scope for asking probing questions
2. it is inflexible
3. make assessment of the motivation of the respondent difficult
4. responses are not always objective and may be misleading
5. the items to be forced –choice
6. it is usually limited in the kinds of information that it can elicit
7. they have short spaces for responses
Interviews
Advantages
It allows:
1. the individual to contribute their own views on an issue
2. greater flexibility on the part of the researcher and respondent
3. the interviewer to gather more in depth information and return of data
4. the researcher/ respondent to explain, clarify, and correct any misinterpretation that might arise
Disadvantages
1. It is open to bias and subjectivity
2. it may collect unnecessary and irrelevant details
3. it does not allow for anonymity
4. the questions asked may cause the respondent discomfort
Observation
Advantages
1. It allows for collection of primary data in a natural setting
2. It can give high return of data
3. allows the researcher flexibility
4. it reduces bias and possible interference
Disadvantages
1. It may be affected by researcher bias
2. the reactions of the respondents may be misinterpreted
3. important and relevant information may be missed
4. actions and behaviours never remain static
RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. Historical research -systematic col
lection and objective evaluations of data related to past occurrences to determine causes, effects, trends. This design involves four important steps-defining the problem which would include formulating the hypothesis, locate the relevant sources of information, summarizing and evaluating it and presenting and interpreting its findings.
2. Descriptive research- describes existing conditions without analyzing relationships among variables. Three designs fall here:
(a.) correlation- examines the extent to which differences in one variable are related to the differences in one or more other variable;
(b.) observation- here the researcher observes how people act or how things look.
(c.) survey research.-seeks to establish patterns of cause and effect relationships
3. Between variables. Two types of survey – social and public. Social surveys seek to establish cause and effects of a social phenomenon, while public opinion surveys seek to find out what people think about a particular issue.
4. Experimental- test hypothesis by an experiment using an experimental and a control group
5. Case Study- there is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or institution in order to determine variables and relationships among variables over a period of time. Here extensive data is collected. It includes observation, interviews, and documents.
6. Action Research- focuses on finding a solution to a local problem in a local setting. The problem is identified and all participants set out to investigate the reasons for the problem and to arrive at a solution to the problem.
ANALYZING DISCOURSE TYPES
Analyzing Discourse Types
1. If the writing is descriptive then the text will be organized spatially and will have the following elements:
a. an appeal to the senses
b. descriptive words and phrases
c. a dominant impression through the use of an appeal to the senses.
d. a specific point of view which may either be a physical setting, a dominant mood or tone.
2. Narratives are organized along a chronological order and have a time sequence. Narration has the following features:
a. the use of dialogue
b. action and dynamic words
c. plot
d. conflict
e. point of view whether first, second or third person narration.
3. Exposition – the organizational structure would include:
a. comparison/contrast
b. illustration
c. analogy
d. cause and effect
e. coherent and logical writing
f. a main idea or thesis statement
g. sub-ideas or supporting details
4. Argument / Persuasion – here the writer or speaker will seek to offer proofs for claims which he has made. These are the features of argument/persuasion:
a. fact/opinion
b. refutation and counter argument
c. appeal to authority
d. statistical data
e. emotional appeals
f. rhetorical questions
g. personal experiences
1. If the writing is descriptive then the text will be organized spatially and will have the following elements:
a. an appeal to the senses
b. descriptive words and phrases
c. a dominant impression through the use of an appeal to the senses.
d. a specific point of view which may either be a physical setting, a dominant mood or tone.
2. Narratives are organized along a chronological order and have a time sequence. Narration has the following features:
a. the use of dialogue
b. action and dynamic words
c. plot
d. conflict
e. point of view whether first, second or third person narration.
3. Exposition – the organizational structure would include:
a. comparison/contrast
b. illustration
c. analogy
d. cause and effect
e. coherent and logical writing
f. a main idea or thesis statement
g. sub-ideas or supporting details
4. Argument / Persuasion – here the writer or speaker will seek to offer proofs for claims which he has made. These are the features of argument/persuasion:
a. fact/opinion
b. refutation and counter argument
c. appeal to authority
d. statistical data
e. emotional appeals
f. rhetorical questions
g. personal experiences
TYPES OF WRITING
Types of Writing
1. Narrative- To narrate is to tell. Narrative has a plot which tells of an event, relates an incident or a series of actions. Narratives organizes facts and presents details in chronological order or presents events at a climatic or dramatic point and by the flashback method; it brings the story to the present time. Narratives focus on settings, characters and events and engage the readers’ attention because of the elements of suspense, intrigue and excitement.
2. Descriptive-In this type of writing the writer appeals to the five senses. The use of adjectives, figurative language such as similes, metaphors, alliterations and onomatopoeia are extremely important as they help to create images to please the senses. Five types of imagery that are named according to the sense to which they appeal are: ( tactile- touch /feeling, visual-sight, audible-hearing, gustatory-taste and olfactory-smell )
3. Expository- This category of writing is characterized by facts. It mainly provides information and explanation. This type of writing makes use of facts, statistical data from surveys, reports and manuals. There is usually some form of analysis, definition, classification and reference to information gathered.
4. Argument- This is where you are trying to convince someone to agree with you or to convince others to accept your opinion. In order to do this effectively you must be convincing, use various methods to put across your point. You must make use of gestures, various tones of voice and facial expressions, employ body language, use diagrams, pictures, graphs, statistics etc.
1. Narrative- To narrate is to tell. Narrative has a plot which tells of an event, relates an incident or a series of actions. Narratives organizes facts and presents details in chronological order or presents events at a climatic or dramatic point and by the flashback method; it brings the story to the present time. Narratives focus on settings, characters and events and engage the readers’ attention because of the elements of suspense, intrigue and excitement.
2. Descriptive-In this type of writing the writer appeals to the five senses. The use of adjectives, figurative language such as similes, metaphors, alliterations and onomatopoeia are extremely important as they help to create images to please the senses. Five types of imagery that are named according to the sense to which they appeal are: ( tactile- touch /feeling, visual-sight, audible-hearing, gustatory-taste and olfactory-smell )
3. Expository- This category of writing is characterized by facts. It mainly provides information and explanation. This type of writing makes use of facts, statistical data from surveys, reports and manuals. There is usually some form of analysis, definition, classification and reference to information gathered.
4. Argument- This is where you are trying to convince someone to agree with you or to convince others to accept your opinion. In order to do this effectively you must be convincing, use various methods to put across your point. You must make use of gestures, various tones of voice and facial expressions, employ body language, use diagrams, pictures, graphs, statistics etc.
e-Learning
The course has ended and I have really learnt alot. I really enjoy the idea of Blogging and my students find it very interesting.
However, as we approach our external exams I would like to wish all my students success in their exam and I hope that they will actually do well in their exams come May..
I am also very proud of my achievements this school year...
Special thanks to my KGB friend who was very instrumental in getting me started...Thanks a million my friend...
However, as we approach our external exams I would like to wish all my students success in their exam and I hope that they will actually do well in their exams come May..
I am also very proud of my achievements this school year...
Special thanks to my KGB friend who was very instrumental in getting me started...Thanks a million my friend...
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